A new study by Imperial College London has found that former professional footballers are considerably more likely than the general population to experience depression, anxiety and difficulties with thinking and decision-making in mid-life. Described as the first and largest study of its kind, the research adds to mounting scrutiny over the long-term impact of heading the ball on players' brain health, and its authors suggest such changes may be detectable before clinical symptoms appear, potentially opening the door to earlier intervention.

The study tested 124 former players aged 30 to 60, including ex-Premier League, Championship and Women's Super League professionals, and was funded by the Football Association and the Professional Footballers' Association. Of those tested, 31% scored in a range indicating clinically significant depression — 22% higher than a comparison group of healthy adults with no history of contact sport — while 42% reached the threshold for significant anxiety, against 25% of non-footballers. Brain imaging also revealed lower grey-matter volumes in areas key to memory, attention, decision-making and emotional regulation. The findings, presented at the Alzheimer's Association International Conference, come amid a series of cases linking neurological illness to the deaths of former players, including Manchester United and Leeds legend Gordon McQueen.